West Africa Research Articles

Pharmaco-virological outcomes and genotypic resistance profiles among children and adolescents receiving a DTG-based regimen in Togo.

Few data are available on the real-world efficacy of receiving tenofovir-lamivudine-dolutegravir (DTG) as HIV treatment, particularly among young people in West Africa. Here, we evaluated pharmaco-virological outcomes and resistance profiles among Togolese children and adolescents. A cross-sectional study was conducted in Lomé, Togo, enrolling antiretroviral-treated people with HIV aged from 18 months to 24 years. Plasma HIV-1 viral load and antiretroviral concentrations were measured. Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS) of protease, Reverse Transcriptase (RT) and integrase was performed on all samples with viral load >200 c/mL. Drug resistance mutations (DRMs) were identified and interpreted using the ANRS-MIE algorithm. 264 participants were enrolled (median age=17 years), 226 received a DTG-based regimen for a median of 20.5 months. Among them, virological suppression at the 200 c/mL threshold in 80.0% of the participants. Plasma DTG concentrations were adequate (i.e., >640 ng/mL), suboptimal and below the limit of quantification in 74.1%, 6.7% and 19.2% of participants receiving DTG, respectively. Overall, viruses resistant to any of Nucleoside RT Inhibitors, Non-NRTIs, and protease inhibitors were found in 52%, 66% and 1.6% of participants, respectively. A major integrase inhibitor DRM was observed in 9.4% (n=3/32, R263K, E138A-G140A-Q148R, and N155H) of participants with a viral load >200 c/mL. These first findings in such a large series of adolescents in a low-income country, showed a good virological response of 80% and the presence of an integrase DRM in 9.4% of the virological failures, supporting the need to monitor DTG drug resistance to reduce the risk of resistance acquisition.

Review of Crop Wild Relative Conservation and Use in West Asia and North Africa

Ensuring global food security in the face of climate change is critical to human survival. With a predicted human population of 9.6 billion in 2050 and the demand for food supplies expected to increase by 60% globally, but with a parallel potential reduction in crop production for wheat by 6.0%, rice by 3.2%, maize by 7.4%, and soybean by 3.1% by the end of the century, maintaining future food security will be a challenge. One potential solution is new climate-smart varieties created using the breadth of diversity inherent in crop wild relatives (CWRs). Yet CWRs are threatened, with 16–35% regarded as threatened and a significantly higher percentage suffering genetic erosion. Additionally, they are under-conserved, 95% requiring additional ex situ collections and less than 1% being actively conserved in situ; they also often grow naturally in disturbed habitats limiting standard conservation measures. The urgent requirement for active CWR conservation is widely recognized in the global policy context (Convention on Biological Diversity post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework, UN Sustainable Development Goals, the FAO Second Global Plan of Action for PGRFA, and the FAO Framework for Action on Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture) and breeders highlight that the lack of CWR diversity is unnecessarily limiting crop improvement. CWRs are not spread evenly across the globe; they are focused in hotspots and the hottest region for CWR diversity is in West Asia and North Africa (WANA). The region has about 40% of global priority taxa and the top 17 countries with maximum numbers of CWR taxa per unit area are all in WANA. Therefore, improved CWR active conservation in WANA is not only a regional but a critical global priority. To assist in the achievement of this goal, we will review the following topics for CWRs in the WANA region: (1) conservation status, (2) community-based conservation, (3) threat status, (4) diversity use, (5) CURE—CWR hub: (ICARDA Centre of Excellence), and (6) recommendations for research priorities. The implementation of the recommendations is likely to significantly improve CWRs in situ and ex situ conservation and will potentially at least double the availability of the full breadth of CWR diversity found in WANA to breeders, and so enhance regional and global food and nutritional security.

Anti-monkeypox virus-neutralizing activities of human immunoglobulin manufactured between 1999 and 2021 and derived from donors in the United States and Japan.

In May 2022, the United Kingdom reported the first case of chained transmission of the monkeypox (mpox) virus without any known epidemiological links to west or central Africa. The monthly number of mpox patients currently has passed a peak and is declining globally, and infected patients include both non-vaccinated and vaccinated individuals. Herein, the virus-neutralizing (VN) activity against vaccinia viruses, which are considered to cross-react with the mpox virus, in the intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) lots derived from donors, including vaccinated Japanese populations, was evaluated to clarify the status of the Japanese blood donor population. VN titres against vaccinia and human mpox viruses in IVIG lots derived from donors in Japan and the United States manufactured between 1999 and 2021 and 1995 and 2001, respectively, were evaluated by neutralization testing. VN titres of IVIG derived from donors in Japan and the United States against vaccinia and mpox viruses showed a slowly decreasing trend between 1999 and 2021. VN titres are expected to decrease in the future since the percentage of vaccinated donors in the donor population seems to have decreased. Therefore, continuous monitoring of VN titres is required.

Strengthening the Contribution of the Investigations of Basil Davidson’s A History of West Africa 1000-1800

This article aims to assess the contribution of Black Africa to the progress of humankind at the time of the Great Empires and even before. To do so, Africans must immerse themselves in the knowledge of their past. The background of West African civilization and history must serve as a rear-view mirror for the advancement of the current generation. Indeed, Basil Davidson, who was an important recorder of information about Africa, edifies us on the main discovery of this older generation based on his study of African iron tools. This invention contributed enormously to the improvement of the population’s well-being and the creation of families, and later villages. These were followed by the foundation of the first kingdoms, culminating in empires such as Ghana, Mali, Songhayand other kingdoms like Senegamby, Mossi, Igbo, Asante, Bono, and Kanem-Bornu. During this period of prosperity, man belonged to his community. The people of the past were imbued with values that placed the interests of the group above those of the individual. Then came the interval between the end of the empires and the independence of West African countries. During this era, the influence of Europeans through slavery and colonization was a heavy weight on their heads. The methodology uses both descriptive and qualitative analyses. Utilizing the framework of Afrocentricity theorized by Molefi Kete Asante we will examine Davidson’s orientation to the data he discussed in order to seek an African perspective on the facts. It is from this angle that this article enlightens on how the writer addresses this question of civilization and prosperity in his work.

Quantifying the Visibility and Human Health Effects of Aerosol Optical Depth Chemical Species in Some Cities of West Africa

Quantifying the Visibility and Human Health Effects of Aerosol Optical Depth Chemical Species in Some Cities of West Africa

Argonauts of West Africa: Unauthorized Migration and Kinship Dynamics in a Changing EuropeApostolosAndrikopoulos (The University of Chicago Press, 2023)

Argonauts of West Africa: Unauthorized Migration and Kinship Dynamics in a Changing EuropeApostolosAndrikopoulos (The University of Chicago Press, 2023)

Communities’ Perceptions and Coping Strategies to Flood Hazard in a Peri-Urban Catchment: The Case Study of the Zio River Basin, Togo, West Africa

Climate and land use changes have exacerbated the frequency and intensity of floods in West Africa. In Togo, the communities of the Zio river sub-basin are regularly affected by flood hazard with severe socio-economic consequences. The main objective of this article is to contribute to the improvement of the resilience of these populations through a better understanding of their perceptions and coping strategies to flood hazards. To achieve this goal, a mixed method consisting of household surveys, focus groups and direct observation is used. In addition, the data collected at the household level focused on the perceptions of the flood (origin and cause), the socio-economic impacts as well as the coping strategies. The results indicate that more than 80% of the households are affected by floods and the main negative consequences are the destruction of houses (40.8%), and interruption of socio-economic activities (58.4%). In addition, the efforts to cope with the severe impacts of floods include embankment (71.6%), storage on occasional shelves (52.3%), digging ditches (26.6% and the construction of cement houses with fairly raised foundations (13.1%). This study shows that is important to integrate indigenous knowledge and local population’s opinions in the flood risk management plans in order to increase their resilience.

Probing Genetics and Environmental Factors underlying Uterine Fibroid Tumorigenesis in Ghana, West Africa

Uterine fibroid (UF) is the most prevalent benign tumour that affects millions of women globally, with a high incidence of 70% amongst women of reproductive age. UF has been associated with various complications, such as recurrent surgeries, infertility, anemia and pregnancy loss. Notably, women of African descent often experience more severe symptoms and complications. Although hormones, growth factors, and genetic alterations are widely associated with UF, the precise mechanism underlying its pathogenesis is not fully understood. Recent evidence suggests altered microbiota may serve as a potential risk factor for UF development. Altered microbiota can contribute to tumorigenesis via epigenetic changes to host cells or toxic effects from invasion. The lack of curative-drug treatment poses significant challenges to patients with UF. Patients often undergo surgeries that require the removal of the uterus or tumour, which can negatively impact fertility. Furthermore, uterine fibroids’ diagnosis relies on expensive imaging technologies such as ultrasound, which may not be readily available in developing countries. Moreso, diagnosis is often conducted only after patients’ symptoms become severe. Although late presentation may contribute to severe symptoms and complications among women with UF in Africa, other factors that influence severity and increase incidence in this population remain unknown. A comprehensive assessment of UF predisposing factors in high-risk populations such as Ghana could give better insights into disease pathogenesis. Hence, this study aims to assess: UF-associated demographic factors, the role of uterine microbiota dysbiosis on UF tumorigenesis; and molecular markers associated with UF in the Ghanaian population. Epidemiological data and clinical samples (tissues, blood and cervico-vaginal swabs) will be obtained. The characterization of samples will involve metagenomics, whole genome sequencing, functional validation of SNPs and SNP genotyping. The association of risk alleles with disease phenotypes will be assessed via regression analysis using PLINK v.1.9. The findings will provide information on potential disease markers that can be explored for better management strategies for UF in high-risk populations.

Drivers and spatial patterns of avian defaunation in tropical forests

AbstractAimWildlife overexploitation, either for food consumption or for the pet trade, is one of the main threats to bird species in tropical forests. Yet, the spatial distribution and intensity of harvesting pressure on tropical birds remain challenging to quantify. Here, we identify the drivers of hunting‐induced declines in bird abundance and quantify the magnitude and the spatial extent of avian defaunation at a pantropical scale.LocationPantropical.MethodsWe compiled 2968 abundance estimates in hunted and non‐hunted sites across the tropics spanning 518 bird species. Using a Bayesian modelling framework, we fitted species' abundance response ratios to a set of drivers of hunting pressure and species traits. Subsequently, we applied our model to quantify the spatial patterns of avian defaunation across tropical forests and to assess avian defaunation across biogeographic realms, and for species captured for the pet trade or for food consumption.ResultsBody mass and its interactions with hunter accessibility and proximity to urban markets were the most important drivers of hunting‐induced bird abundance declines. We estimated a mean abundance reduction of 12% across the tropics for all species, and that 43% of the extent of tropical forests harbour defaunated avian communities. Large‐bodied species and the Indomalayan realm displayed the greatest abundance declines. Further, moderate to high levels of defaunation extended over 24% of the pantropical forest area, with distinct spatial patterns for species captured for the pet trade (Brazil, China and Indonesia) and for food consumption (SE Asia and West Africa).Main ConclusionsOur study emphasizes the role of hunter accessibility and the proximity to urban markets as major drivers of bird abundance declines due to hunting and trapping. We further identified hotspots where overexploitation has detrimental effects on tropical birds, encompassing local extinction events, thus underscoring the urgent need for conservation efforts to address unsustainable exploitation for both subsistence and trade.

Occurrence of Tetracampos sp. (Cestoda) and Paracamallanus sp. and Rhabdochona sp. (Nematoda) in the catfish Clarias gariepinus in Ouémé River in Benin (West Africa)

Occurrence of Tetracampos sp. (Cestoda) and Paracamallanus sp. and Rhabdochona sp. (Nematoda) in the catfish Clarias gariepinus in Ouémé River in Benin (West Africa)

Nature-based solutions to increase rice yield: An experimental assessment of the role of birds and bats as agricultural pest suppressors in West Africa

Rice is widely consumed as a staple food, being cultivated worldwide. However, in West Africa, production is not enough to satisfy demand. Rice often suffers intensive damage by herbivorous arthropods that affect quality and quantity of the grain. Birds and bats have been shown to suppress arthropod pests, potentially enhancing rice productivity and food security. However, the degree to which these taxa provide nature-based solutions for mitigating pest-induced rice losses is poorly known, especially in West Africa. Here, we used experimental exclosures to investigate whether birds and bats reduce plant damage and boost rice yield by suppressing arthropod abundance. In a rural area in northern Guinea-Bissau, we established 14 sets of paired control and experimental exclosures parcels, precluding access of birds and bats to rice plants. We then quantified how the absence of birds and bats influenced arthropod communities, plant damage, and rice yield over a full rice production cycle (six months). Arthropod numbers in exclosures (10.1 ± 9.1 ind./plot) were nearly double those in control plots (5.8 ± 3.0 ind./plot), a result mostly due to a lower spider abundance in the controls. The percentage of leaf and grain damage showed no difference between exclosure and control. Using Structural Equation Models, we uncovered that the exclusion of birds and bats boosted arthropod abundance but had only marginal effects on rice damage and no detectable effect on yield. The exclusion of flying vertebrates led to a marked increase in spider abundance, suggesting an effect of mesopredator release, which in turn likely helped maintaining pest abundance low and potentially contributing to the small overall effect on rice damage and yield. Enhancing the abundance of birds and bats is an interesting option to suppress agricultural pests, but our results highlight the need for a better understanding of ecological interactions in agricultural landscapes in West Africa. We stress the need for more research to inform evidence-based policies using nature-based solutions that foster the natural consumption of pests by vertebrates, as a means to improve food security.

First insights into the spatio-temporal ecology of sympatric large carnivores in Niokolo-Koba National Park, Senegal

Abstract Large carnivores play a crucial role in their native ecosystems, but their populations are rapidly declining across the African continent. West Africa is no exception, with large protected areas often forming the last strongholds for these species. Little is known about the population status and ecology of large carnivores in the region, hampering the design and implementation of effective conservation strategies. We conducted a camera-trap survey during the dry season in Niokolo-Koba National Park, the largest terrestrial protected area in Senegal and the second largest in West Africa, to investigate the spatio-temporal ecology of the four large carnivores inhabiting the Park: the spotted hyaena Crocuta crocuta, leopard Panthera pardus, West African lion Panthera leo leo and African wild dog Lycaon pictus. Spotted hyaenas and leopards had the widest spatial distribution and highest probability of site use. Spotted hyaena site use was positively associated with leopard relative abundance index and negatively associated with normalized difference vegetation index, whereas only distance to the nearest road influenced leopard site use. Distance to the Gambian River was the most important covariate positively affecting site use by lions. African wild dog site use was negatively associated with the relative abundance indices of lions and leopards. Lions, spotted hyaenas and leopards showed strong overlap in their activity patterns. By providing new information on the ecology of large carnivores in West Africa, including where they range and which habitats are critical for their survival, our study will facilitate conservation planning. Our findings lay the foundations for future research to conserve these threatened species in West Africa effectively and to guide ranger patrol efforts, which are key for their long-term survival.

Assessing the German Act on Corporate Due Diligence Obligations in Supply Chains: a perspective from the smallholder cocoa farmer

This research examines the potential outputs, outcomes, and impacts of the German Act on Corporate Due Diligence Obligations in Supply Chains (LkSG) on the smallholder cocoa farmers in West Africa. The study primarily relies on a literature review and an impact pathway to conduct a systematic analysis to identify the potential effects of the LkSG on smallholder cocoa farmers. The findings indicate that some, but not all of the risks addressed by the LkSG align with those faced by smallholder cocoa farmers and their families. Additionally, the research also reveals weaknesses, particularly in managing environmental risks, which the LkSG does not adequately cover. Our findings show that in the short- and medium-term, the LkSG has no potential effects on smallholder cocoa farmers. Furthermore, the potential positive impacts of the law on smallholder cocoa farmers will take a long time to realize, as the LkSG considers primarily tier-1 suppliers. Companies in Germany might reassess their supply chains to strive for an LkSG-risk-free supply chain, which could in the long term have sustained impacts on smallholder cocoa farmers. However, we recommend a comprehensive risk analysis of the cocoa supply chain to enhance the human rights of cocoa farmers.

Expanded Access Programme for the use of tecovirimat for the treatment of monkeypox infection: A study protocol for an Expanded Access Programme.

Monkeypox is a viral zoonotic disease commonly reported in humans in parts of Central and West Africa. This protocol is for an Expanded Access Programme (EAP) to be implemented in the Central African Republic, where Clade I monkeypox virus diseases is primarily responsible for most monkeypox infections. The objective of the programme is to provide patients with confirmed monkeypox with access to tecovirimat, a novel antiviral targeting orthopoxviruses, and collect data on clinical and virological outcomes of patients to inform future research. The study will be conducted at participating hospitals in the Central African Republic. All patients who provide informed consent to enrol in the programme will receive tecovirimat. Patients will remain in hospital for the duration of treatment. Data on clinical signs and symptoms will be collected every day while the patient is hospitalised. Blood, throat and lesion samples will be collected at baseline and then on days 4, 8, 14 and 28. Patient outcomes will be assessed on Day 14 -end of treatment-and at Day 28. Adverse event and serious adverse event data will be collected from the point of consent until Day 28. This EAP is the first protocolised treatment programme in Clade I MPXV. The data generated under this protocol aims to describe the use of tecovirimat for Clade I disease in a monkeypox endemic region of Central Africa. It is hoped that this data can inform the definition of outcome measures used in future research and contribute to the academic literature around the use of tecovirimat for the treatment of monkeypox. The EAP also aims to bolster research capacity in the region in order for robust randomised controlled trials to take place for monkeypox and other diseases. {2a & 2b}: ISRCTN43307947.

Characterizing the performances of different observational precipitation products and their uncertainties over Africa

Validation of observed gridded precipitation datasets sourced from satellites or reanalysis over Africa remains a challenge due to the dearth of in-situ products that can act as a true estimate. To address this gap, this study compares the performance of different precipitation products (gauge, reanalysis, and satellite-based) sourced from the Frequent Rainfall Observations on GridS (FROGS) database over Africa. Satellite products are classified as corrected (incorporating gauge observations into their algorithms) or uncorrected, which implies that temporal variations depend entirely on the satellite. The main aim is to identify regions where precipitation products depict minimal uncertainties, supporting the use of the datasets in understanding precipitation variability in the specific regions. This is achieved by applying the triple collocation approach, which takes advantage of three collocated datasets of the same variable to derive the mean square error without requiring knowledge of the true value. The results show that light precipitation (1–5 mm d−1) was prevalent in most regions of Africa during the study duration (2001–2016). Estimating the spatial distribution of daily precipitation greater than the 90th percentiles suggests that extreme precipitation is mainly detected over the Central Africa region and coastal regions of West Africa, where the majority of uncorrected satellite products show consistent performance. The satellite product CMORPH_V1_RAW shows higher estimates of 90th percentile precipitation among the uncorrected satellite products. The ability of precipitation products to detect rainy or non-rainy days shows that corrected satellite products depict notable agreement for probability of detection and false alarm ratio over most regions of Africa. Overall, better performance is demonstrated by the IMERG products, ARCv2, CHIRPSv2 and PERSIANN_CDRv1r1 (corrected), and GPCC, CPC_v1.0 and REGEN_ALL (gauge) during the study period. Among the reanalysis products, ERA5 datasets shows good performance in estimating daily precipitation over Africa. The optimal maps that show the classification of products in regions where they depict reliable performance can be recommended for various usage by different stakeholders.

Moniliophthora perniciosa in Angola, Africa-the First Record in the Eastern Hemisphere.

Moniliophthora perniciosa causes a destructive disease known as witches' broom disease of cacao (WBDC). WBDC has been responsible for major reductions in production or even total abandonment of cacao plantations in most countries that it has invaded. To date, however, the disease is known only from the cacao-producing regions of South America and a few Central American and Caribbean countries. It is not known from the Eastern Hemisphere and remains a major threat should it invade West Africa or Southeast Asia, where the majority of the world's chocolate production now occurs. In 2019, a pink pigmented mushroom was found fruiting from unidentified twigs in the Serra Vamba of Angola. The specimen was identified as M. perniciosa based on morphological and molecular analyses. Although Angola is not a major cacao-producing country, the presence of the fungus in the Eastern Hemisphere could be of global concern and may indicate the need for quarantine in Angola and vigilance in neighboring countries.

Genotypic spectrum of albinism in Mali.

Albinism is a phenotypically and genetically heterogeneous condition characterized by a variable degree of hypopigmentation and by ocular features leading to reduced visual acuity. Whereas numerous genotypic studies have been conducted throughout the world, very little is known about the genotypic spectrum of albinism in Africa and especially in sub-Saharan Western Africa. Here we report the analysis of all known albinism genes in a series a 23 patients originating from Mali. Four were diagnosed with OCA 1 (oculocutaneous albinism type 1), 17 with OCA 2, and two with OCA 4. OCA2 variant NM_000275.3:c.819_822delinsGGTC was most frequently encountered. Four novel variants were identified (two in TYR, two in OCA2). A deep intronic variant was found to alter splicing of the OCA2 RNA by inclusion of a pseudo exon. Of note, the OCA2 exon 7 deletion commonly found in eastern, central, and southern Africa was absent from this series. African patients with OCA 1 and OCA 4 had only been reported twice and once, respectively, in previous publications. This study constitutes the first report of the genotypic spectrum of albinism in a western sub-Saharan country.

Plant density and variety effect on yield, leaf spot disease, weed species richness and diversity of groundnut production in northern Ghana

AbstractLow plant density and weed infestation are major challenges for groundnut production in northern Ghana. A two‐year on‐farm study was conducted to determine the effect of plant density and variety on grain and fodder yields, incidence of leaf spot disease, weed species diversity and biomass. A factorial treatment combination of 6 varieties and 4 plant densities laid in strip plot design with 4 replications was used. The varieties were (early maturity type: Chinese, Yenyewoso, Samnut 23 and late maturity type: Azivivi, Manipinta, Samnut 22). The plants density included 9, 11, 15 and 22 plants/m2. The late maturity varieties recorded higher (p < .05) canopy cover, grain and fodder yields relative to that of the early maturity varieties. The late maturity varieties also recorded the least sedge weed species frequency, density and incidence of leaf spot disease compared with that of the early maturity varieties. The canopy cover, grain and fodder yields increased with increasing plant density. Broadleaf weed species frequency and density, weed biomass, richness, and diversity declined with increasing plant density. Grain yield showed negative and significant correlation with broadleaf weed species frequency, density and weed biomass. The results suggest that both early and late maturity groundnut varieties can be planted at a density of 22 plants/m2 to increase grain and fodder yields and reduce weed species richness, diversity and growth in northern Ghana and similar agro‐ecology in West Africa.

Delineation of a conceptual groundwater flow model of the Kandi basin in Benin (West Africa): Insights from isotopes, piezometric and hydrological investigations

Study regionThe hydrogeological Kandi basin, the Benin’s sector of the transboundary Iullumeden basin, located in northern Benin, West Africa Study focusIn many parts of the world, groundwater resources constitute the main, if not the only, source of potable water available to address a growing demand for numerous uses. And yet, a basic understanding of the hydrogeology of many critical groundwater systems is lacking in many instances. Only when severe groundwater depletion or serious groundwater quality issues arise is the attention paid to the lack of specific groundwater studies. This study targets the Kandi basin, a ∼8700 km2 hydrogeological basin located in northern Benin, which is the primary source of potable water for its inhabitants, but its hydrogeological functioning remains unclear. We conducted isotopic and hydrogeological investigations in this basin from 2013 to 2019 to characterize groundwater recharge processes and delineate flow patterns. The resulting hydrological and geochemical data have been integrated and interpreted using tools including mapping tools. New hydrological insights for the regionThis study has identified the preferential groundwater recharge areas and characterized the main groundwater flow paths. Predominant areas of groundwater dischage into surface water, regardless of the seasons, were detected and areas where the surface-groundwater interflows are season-dependent were discriminated. The main findings presented in this paper are expected to provide a baseline for further in-depth hydrogeological investigations, namely groundwater flow modeling that will help understand the impacts of various groundwater withdrawals and climate changes on the groundwater resources availability of this basin.

Cultural conceptualisations in Nigerian Pidgin English proverbs

AbstractThis article explores Nigerian Pidgin English proverbs as a source of cultural conceptualisations that reflect traditional wisdom as well as the modern urban setting of West Africa. A total of 173 proverbs sourced from the BBC News Pidgin's Instagram service were analysed for recurrent lexical keywords and themes (e.g. those relating to food, eating and drinking, and animals) that can be interpreted as source domain lexical material that points to the knowledge of nature, common animals, objects and social situations. The findings suggest that Nigerian Pidgin English proverbs contain a rich inventory of variety‐ and culture‐specific lexis that encodes cultural knowledge and practice, for example knowledge of the local flora and fauna, food items, but also objects of material culture such as clothing, as well as references to social culture.